子宮頸癌篩檢及治療共識
一、簡介
子宮頸癌是台灣婦女排名第一的惡性腫瘤,根據台灣衛生署統計報告每年台灣約有2000例新的子宮頸癌病患,約950人會死於子宮頸癌。以全世界來看,子宮頸癌僅次於乳癌,為發生率最高,死亡病例最多的惡性腫瘤。全世界每年會有471,000個新病例被診斷出來。大部分的病人多發生於衛生與經濟條件較差的開發中或工業國家。
侵犯性的子宮頸癌與一些癌症前期的子宮頸病變均已被發現和人類乳突病毒(HPV, Human Papilloma Virus)有重大的關聯。研究也發現,大部分的侵犯性子宮頸癌是從子宮頸癌前期病變(Preinvasive Lesion)慢慢長時間演進而成的。而在這段時間內,子宮頸抹片檢查可以相當有效的偵測到這些異常的細胞。若要考慮到將來的生育能力而保留子宮,我們也可以有效的掌握與治療這些早期病變。
目前有關子宮頸癌的治療方針與治療後生活品質的問題仍然有待研究解決。對子宮頸癌前病變以及早期侵犯性的子宮頸癌,主要的關鍵在:如何制定治療的範圍,病理和臨床治療指標的探討,以及如何選擇最恰當的治療模式。至於較晚期的病例,問題重點在:什麼是最適當的放射治療技術,化學治療或合併多種治療方法的療效評估,復發病灶的補救治療之療效與併發症的評估,以及緩解性療法(Palliative therapy)的探討。
二、子宮頸癌的篩檢與預防(Screening and Prevention)
篩檢(Screening)
子宮頸上皮細胞癌是一種很適合篩檢的疾病,因為它的癌症前期階段相當長,可以有充分的時間篩檢。子宮頸抹片對於減少因侵犯性癌症引起的死亡與病痛有相當的成效。雖然子宮頸抹片篩檢的優點多,可是仍然有許多台灣婦女並未接受過子宮頸抹片,或是沒有定期做抹片,需加強宣導子宮頸抹片的重要性。
為將子宮頸抹片結果標準化,在1991年Bethesda System經過重新修定(表一)。修訂後的Bethesda System可評估抹片標本是否適當(Adequacy),使用診斷命名分類,並對一些抹片結果做進一步的處置建議。判定抹片標本是否適量並適合判讀是很重要的前提。有許多子宮頸癌的病例如果回溯其當初的子宮頸抹片標本時會發現很多都有檢體不足,或抹片品質不佳的現象,以至於當初並沒有被篩檢出來。造成抹片品質不佳的原因有很多,最主要的原因有:細胞太少,抹片固定不良。其它如沒有取得轉換區(Transformation zone)的標本,大量的血跡污染,或是發炎細胞太多引起判讀的困難等等。
與1940年剛發展出來的時候比較,子宮頸抹片的方法以及抹片標本的判讀與處置改變並不多。雖然抹片是癌症前期病變很好的篩檢工具,單做一次抹片會有20%左右的偽陰性比例(False Negative Rate)。這其中的一半是因為抹片取樣檢體不足或抹片品質不佳,而另一半則是判讀錯誤,沒有辨認出異常的細胞。作抹片的時候應該同時做仔細的內診,如果有肉眼可見的病灶,應該要加以切片。為提高抹片取樣的標本量與正確的取樣位置,目前已發展出許多取樣工具(例如spatula, endocervical brush, broom, cotton swab 等)。目前仍有些有關抹片收集,處理與保存方法的研究正在進行,期望改進抹片的品質,提高辨視的正確率。1995年秋天,美國藥品與食品管理局(FDA)核准了兩種自動化判讀儀器,此等儀器可作為抹片品質管理用。至於用機器看片來作為初審判讀在正確性與經濟效益上是否可行仍有待評估。目前不建議作為第一線篩檢工具。
1988年美國婦癌專家曾建議,對於18歲以上,或已有性行為的女性均應每年接受子宮頸抹片檢查與骨盆腔內診。連續3次抹片正常後,抹片的間隔時間可以延長。1995年美國婦產科學會American Collage of Obstetricians and Gynecologists建議,有一項以上危險因子的婦女(危險因子包括:愛滋病毒HIV或人類乳突病毒HPV感染,過去有子宮頸Low Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesion,本人或其配偶性對象複雜者),須每年做一次抹片。65歲以上仍須繼續抹片。台灣是子宮頸癌好發國家,有性行為的婦女,無論有無危險因子,均應每年接受抹片檢查。
預防(Prevention)
首要的預防工作是預防人類乳突病毒(HPV)的感染,包括:(1)教育全民及性對象複雜的男女,讓他們了解到,會經由性行為傳染的人類乳突病毒與子宮頸上皮內腫瘤及侵犯性子宮頸癌之間有密切的關聯。(2)勸導勿太早有性生活。(3)發展出有效的陰道殺菌劑與抗病毒劑。至於戴保險套或使用子宮帽是否可以預防人類乳突病毒的傳染尚無定論,但對於無論本人或配偶性對象複雜者仍可考慮使用此等阻隔性的避孕工具。(4)研製有效的抗病毒劑來治療已感染上人類乳突病毒的宿主細胞,或是預防人類乳突病毒中E6,E7致癌基因的誘癌作用(Transformation)。(5)發展出有效的人類乳突病毒疫苗,預防感染。(6)發展被動免疫疫苗,以防止人類乳突病毒感染繼續惡化。
其他預防工作包括:(1)提昇癌症前期病變的篩檢敏感度(Sensitivity)與特異性(Specificity)。(2)針對目前未受篩檢的婦女,加強宣導教育。
三、子宮頸上皮內腫瘤的適當處置模式(CIN: Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia)
異常抹片的處置(LGSIL, HGSIL, ASCUS, AGCUS):
LGSIL (Low Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesion), HGSIL (High Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesion), ASCUS (Atypical Squamous Cell of Undetermined Significance) 及 AGCUS (Atypical Glandular Cell of Undetermined Significance)當施行陰道鏡檢查。如陰道鏡檢查屬滿意者(Satisfactory),即可在陰道鏡下進行切片及子宮內頸搔刮取樣。如陰道鏡檢查屬不滿意者(Unsatisfactory),或子宮頸切片與抹片結果有明顯差距者,須接受子宮頸錐形切片(Knife, LEEP: Loop Electrical Excisional Procedure, Laser)及子宮內頸搔刮取樣。LGSIL和ASCUS在陰道鏡下進行切片及子宮內頸搔刮取樣,如切片結果為輕度子宮頸上皮內腫瘤則可每三個月至六個月做抹片追蹤。AGCUS陰道鏡檢查如屬正常,尚須接受分段式子宮內膜搔刮取樣(Fractional D&C)。
輕度子宮頸上皮內腫瘤的處置方案(CIN1):
此類病灶有恢復正常的機會,可不進一步處理,而以抹片作為追蹤,每三個月至六個月做一次。
中度子宮頸上皮內腫瘤的處置方案(CIN2):
可以作局部性治療,包括:鐳射部份氣化治療(Laser Ablation),電圈部份切除治療(LEEP)和子宮頸錐形切除(Conization)。
重度子宮頸上皮內腫瘤的處置方案(CIN3):
一般可施行治療性的子宮頸錐形切除手術(包括Knife, Laser, LEEP)。後續的全子宮切除並不增加其存活機率。若錐形切片的邊緣仍殘留病灶,可再施行子宮頸錐形切除手術或追蹤。如生育己完成的婦女,下列的情形可考慮施行全子宮切除,包括:微侵犯性子宮頸癌(Microinvasion Stage Ia1),錐形切片的邊緣仍殘留病灶,無法作長期追蹤的病人,或合併其他婦科病灶(如子宮肌瘤,子宮下垂,子宮內膜異位症,骨盆腔炎症)須作全子宮切除的病人。
Adenocarcinoma in situ的處置方案爭議性很大,一般認為若錐形切片的邊緣仍殘留病灶者必須再施行子宮頸錐形切除手術。如不考慮生育,雖然錐形切片的邊緣沒有殘留病灶,仍建議作全子宮切除手術。
四、初期子宮頸癌的適當處理模式:(Low stage cervical cancer, FIGO stage I-IIa)
1994年FIGO(International Federation of Gynecologists and Obstetricians)提出新的子宮頸癌分期方法(表二)。
StageIa1的診斷要靠子宮頸錐形切片而非局部切片(punch biopsy)。錐形切片最好使用標本邊緣不會有燒灼痕跡的方法(如用刀片)較理想。標本必須做有系統的檢視。若發現有早期侵犯的病灶,必須要做連續切片來確定最大侵犯深度,病灶的寬度,以及是否有淋巴血管侵犯(LVSI: Lymphatic Vascular Space Invasion)。對於Stage Ia1的子宮頸上皮細胞癌,單純子宮切除,或是錐形切片(邊緣沒有腫瘤侵犯)就可達到幾乎100%的治癒率。選擇要做子宮切除或是子宮頸錐形切片則視是否要保留生育能力而定。雖然淋巴血管侵犯(LVSI)一般被認為是子宮頸癌預後較差的因子,對於Stage Ia1的病人,淋巴血管侵犯是否有重要的預後影響則尚未確定。所以有些專家主張,若Stage Ia1的子宮頸上皮細胞癌發現有淋巴血管侵犯,可施行根除性子宮切除(Radical Hysterectomy)或修正式根除性子宮切除(Modified Radical Hysterectomy)或全子宮切除(Total Hysterectomy)合併骨盆腔淋巴切除。
Stage Ia2的病人,施行根除性子宮切除術或修正式根除性子宮切除術,合併骨盆腔淋巴切除,或是接受放射治療,均可達到差不多的療效。Stage Ia2的放射治療應涵蓋體外照射(Teletherapy)和腔內近接放射治療(Brachytherapy)。
Stage Ib或是IIa的子宮頸癌應行根除性子宮切除術合併骨盆淋巴結摘除術,或是直接接受放射治療,兩者療效差不多。Stage Ib和IIa的放射治療方法應包括腔內近接療法和體外照射。Stage Ib2,腫瘤體相當大的病例,若腔內近接放射治療順利,無殘餘腫瘤,追加子宮切除對局部腫瘤控制沒有幫忙。
有一些因子如淋巴結轉移,較大的病灶(>4cm),病灶侵犯深度較深,較差的病理組織型態,以及淋巴血管侵犯(LVSI)等,均被認為是屬於預後較差的危險因子。根除性子宮切除後若病理切片發現有淋巴結轉移,術後補行放射治療可減少骨盆腔內復發,但似乎對存活率改善不多,因此類病例可能已有遠端轉移,手術後追加化學治療或其他輔助治療是否可減少復發,仍有待日後研究。對於手術標本邊緣安全距離不足或病灶未切除乾淨的病例,術後補行放射治療會有所幫助,可減少骨盆腔內復發。
對於那些因術前未被診斷出來,而當作良性疾病只施行單純子宮切除的子宮頸癌病例,應追加放射治療,或施行子宮旁組織切除(parametrectomy)和骨盆淋巴摘除。
Stage Ib或IIa的病例,放射治療前先施行化學治療,並不會提升其存活機率。至於手術前施行化學治療,成效如何仍有待評估。
懷孕合併子宮頸癌的婦女與非懷孕婦女的預後相差不多。雖然目前文獻不多,但顯示Stage Ia與Ib1的病人可以延後治療時間,待胎兒有足夠的存活能力後再施行治療,並不會影響預後。至於Stage Ib2或晚期侵犯性的病例,為了胎兒因素而延後治療是否安全則有待評估。
血清腫瘤標記(Tumor Marker)在侵犯性子宮頸癌的應用上還不十分理想,值得進一步研究。子宮頸癌治療後,不論原來是何種細胞型態或分期,給予女性荷爾蒙補充正常性生活並無特殊禁忌。
五、較晚期與復發的子宮頸癌的處理模式:( Advanced Stage Cervical Cancer, Recurrent Cervical Cancer)
晚期子宮頸癌(FIGO Stage IIb 及 IIb以上),標準的做法是直接施行涵蓋高能量((Megavoltage Radiation Energies)之體外照射(Teletherapy)與近接療法(Brachytherapy),以多照野方式(Multiple Field Arrangement))在主要病灶處提供足夠的放射劑量。使用低劑量率的近接療法(LDR : Low Dose Rate Brachytherapy)可顯著減少局部復發率,至於高劑量率的近接療法(HDR : High Dose Rate Brachytherapy)也有愈來愈多人使用。初步研究顯示兩者效果差不多,但是理想的劑量分次(Fractionation Schemes)與長期併發症的發生有待進一步的評估。至於插種治療(Interstitial Therapyy)則多應用於腫瘤位置或形狀異常的病例。
對於晚期或復發性子宮頸癌之化學治療成效,目前有許多研究正在進行。Cisplatin是目前研究中公認為最有效的化療藥物,其致效率(Response Rate)約有18-31%。合併其他的藥物治療(如Bleomycin , Ifosphamide , Methotrexate, Vincristine, 5FU 等),對預後的影響仍有待進一步研究。
放射治療前施行化學治療,目前有些研究指出並不會提昇療效,且統計上顯示,反而骨盆腔腫瘤治療失敗率上升,病人存活率降低。以放射線敏感劑來提高放射治療之效果有一些較早期的對照研究指出,同時合併Hydroxyurea及放射治療似乎可提升治療率,但後來經過修正其統計方法,發現療效並沒有比單獨施行放射治療高,至於其他的放射線敏感劑也仍在研究中。同步化學放射治療(Concomitant Chemoradiation)─在放射治療當中合併其他化療藥物以提升療效,也有待進一步研究。另外在放射治療後追加化學治療是否可提高治療率,也有很多研究在進行中。
有些晚期且局部性子宮頸癌的病例,在無主動脈旁淋巴轉移且無骨盆腔壁蔓延的情況下可考慮施行手術治療。
手術後復發性子宮頸癌的處置:
經由手術治療後的子宮頸癌,於骨盆腔發生復發後,可進一步接受放射線治療,文獻上報告有16-47%的五年存活率。至於是否要合併化學治療則有待研究。如復發部位只局限在骨盆腔中央(Central Recurrence),無骨盆腔側壁蔓延,可考慮再以手術治療。
放射線治療後復發性子宮頸癌的處置:
全劑量(Full Dose)放射治療後腫瘤復發如何處理,須視復發的部位而定。骨盆腔中央復發(Central Recurrence)無骨盆腔側壁蔓延的病人,通常可施行骨盆臟器剜除術(Pelvic Exenteration)。骨盆臟器剜除術(Pelvic Exenteration)所引發的死亡率隨經驗的增加,已小於10%。此外,自控式人造膀胱(Continent Urinary Reservoirs),陰道重建(Vaginal Reconstruction),以及低位直腸吻合術(Low Rectal Anastomosis)等手術的進步,都使病人在接受骨盆臟器剜除術後仍可以有接近於常人的生活品質。骨盆臟器剜除後的五年存活率,介於30-60%之間。小於2公分的復發病灶,可施行較小範圍的手術(如Radical Hysterectomy),但這種作法常常會有泌尿系統的併發症出現。對此類病人,仍建議施行骨盆臟器剜除術(Pelvic Exenteration),但病人心理建設與身體情況是否合適,須審慎評估。至於骨盆腔側壁(Pelvic Sidewall)復發,目前實驗中的治療方式有手術中電子束照射,或手術中近接療法(Intraoperation Electron Beam or Brachytherapy)。復發後的積極治療,對病人的經濟,情緒與身體的負擔均相當大,這些都必須在治療前列入考慮。
緩解性治療(Palliative Therapy):
緩解性治療主要適用於有症狀(如疼痛)的病人。治療前須先設定好治療目標。骨盆腔症狀的緩解性治療主要是使用放射治療。短程放射治療(Short Course Radiation)對這類病人通常都有一定的效果。骨盆腔外的轉移病灶,如骨骼轉移處使用短程放射線治療也有相當好的效果。全身性的化學治療對於症狀減輕也有不錯的效果,只是效果持續時間並不是很長。另外也可考慮用物理治療來減輕病人的疼痛。婦癌專家應該讓病人有信心,了解所有症狀的治療,包括疼痛控制以及心理與精神方面的支持,以減少病人的恐懼感。
六、結論
子宮頸抹片仍然是目前最有效的篩檢工具。篩檢率偏低的主因除了婦女知識不足或是知而不行之外,一般醫師對抹片的宣導也不足。加強對民眾的教育,尤其是年老婦女,鄉村,社會經濟地位與衛生條件較差婦女的宣導乃是推廣子宮頸抹片的重要工作。
重度子宮頸上皮內腫瘤至微細侵犯性的子宮頸癌(Microinvasive Squamous Carcinoma,FIGO stage Ia)治癒率幾達百分之百。
FIGO Stage Ib,與IIa的病例,治癒率達70-85%。對這些病人,根除性子宮切除術與放射治療的療效差不多。適當的選擇病人,施行其中一種治療方式即可。治療後對有高危險因子的病例如何追加輔助治療,有待進一步研究探討。
較晚期且尚未轉移出去的子宮頸癌患者,標準的治療方案是施行放射線治療。目前雖然五年存活率平均只有40-60%左右,隨著治療方法的進步,仍有改善的空間。而輔助化學治療是否增加存活機率及生活品質,值得進一步去探討。
骨盆腔內局部腫瘤復發的病例,可以使用以前尚未用過的治療方法。比如說,以前用放射線治療的,可考慮用手術處理,反之亦然。對於已有遠處轉移的病例,可以嘗試使用化學治療。
| 表ㄧ: 抹片判讀結果 |
一. 抹片品質:
(1) 良好
(2) 尚可
(3) 抹片難以判讀 |
二.抹片尚可或難以判讀之原因
(1)抹片固定或保存不良
(2)細胞太少
(3)太厚或太多血液
(4)沒有子宮內頸成份
(5)炎症細胞過多
(6)存在外來物(如潤滑劑)
(7)過多細胞溶解或自溶
(8)其他 |
三.可能的感染
(1)Candida
(2)Trichomonas
(3)Herpes
(4)Human papilloma virus
(5)Chlamydiae
(6)Others |
四.細胞病理診斷
● NORMAL (WITHIN NORMAL LIMIT)
→ Normal
→ Reactive change: inflammation, repair, radiation, and others
→ Atrophy with inflammation
● ATYPICAL CELLS OF UNDETERMINED SIGNIFICANCE
→ Atypical squamous cells
→ Atypical glandular cells
● LOW-GRADE SQUAMOUS INTRAEPITHELIAL LESION (LSIL)
→ Mild dysplasia(CIN 1)
● HIGH-GRADE SQUAMOUS INTRAEPITHELIAL LESION (HSIL)
→ Moderate dysplasia(CIN2)
→ Severe dysplasia(CIN3)
→ Carcinoma In situ(CIN3)
● SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
● ADENOCARCINOMA
● OTHER MALIGNANT NEOPLASM
● OTHERS
→ Atypical glandular cells favor neoplasm
→ Atypical squamous cells favor HSIL
→ Dysplasia, favor HSIL |
| 表二:The FIGO Staging System for Cervix Cancer (1994) |
| Stage |
|
| 0 |
Carcinoma in situ, intraepithelial carcinoma. Cases of Stage 0 should not be included in any therapeutic statistics for invasive carcinoma. |
| I |
The carcinoma is strictly confined to the cervix (extension to the corpus should be disregarded). |
| IA |
Invasive cancer identified only microscopically. All gross lesions, even with superficial invasion, are stage IB cancers. Invasion is limited to measured stromal invasion with a maximum depth of 5 mm and no wider than 7 mm. (The depth of invasion should not be more than 5 mm taken from the base of the epithelium, either surface or glandular, from which it originates. Vascular space involvement, either venous or lymphatic, should not alter the staging.) |
| IA1 |
Measured invasion of stroma no greater than 3 mm in depth and no wider than 7 mm. |
| IA2 |
Measured invasion of stroma greater than 3 mm and no greater than 5 mm in depth and no wider than 7 mm. |
| IB |
Clinical lesions confined to the cervix or preclinical lesions greater than IA. |
| IB1 |
Clinical lesions no greater than 4 cm in size. |
| IB2 |
Clinical lesions greater than 4 cm in size. |
| II |
The carcinoma extends beyond the cervix, but has not extended on to the pelvic wall; the carcinoma involves the vagina, but not as far as the lower third. |
| IIa |
No obvious parametrial involvement. |
| IIb |
Obvious parametrial involvement. |
| III |
The carcinoma has extended on to the pelvic wall; on rectal examination there is no cancer-free space between the tumor and the pelvic wall; the tumor involves the lower third of the vagina; all cases with a hydronephrosis or nonfunctioning kidney should be included, unless they are known to be due to other cause. |
| IIIa |
No extension on to the pelvic wall, but involvement of the lower third of the vagina. |
| IIIb |
Extension on to the pelvic wall or hydronephrosis or nonfunctioning kidney. |
| IV |
The carcinoma has extended beyond the true pelvis or has clinically involved the mucosa of the bladder or rectum. |
| IVa |
Spread of the growth to adjacent organs. |
| IVb |
Spread to distant organs. |
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